Such a linguistic strategy links positive outcomes with a valued social identity but creates distance from negative outcomes. They arise as a result of a lack of drive or a refusal to adapt. Finally, these examples illustrate that individuals on the receiving end are influenced by the prejudiced and stereotype messages to which they are exposed. Add to these examples the stereotypic images presented in advertising and the uneven television coverage of news relevant to specific ethnic or gender groups . Exposure to films that especially perpetuate the stereotype can influence judgments made about university applicants (Smith et al., 1999) and also can predict gender-stereotyped behavior in children (Coyne, Linder, Rasmussen, Nelson, & Birkbeck, 2016). Explain when this happened and how it made you feel. Incongruity resolution theories propose that amusement arises from the juxtaposition of two otherwise incongruous elements (which, in the case of group-based humor, often involves stereotypes). Prejudice: bias[wrong opinion] about people on the basis of community, caste, religions or on personal basis is very negative for communication. Intercultural Conflict Management. Although the dehumanizing metaphor may include a label (as discussed in the earlier section), the metaphor goes beyond a mere label: Labeling a group as parasites also implies that they perpetuate moral or physical disease, evince swarming behavior by living in unpredictable bands of individuals, and are not true contributing members of society (i.e., parasites live off a host society). It bears mention that sighted communicators sometimes speak loudly to visually impaired receivers (which serves no obvious communicative function). Although the person issuing the invite may not consciously have intended to exclude female, unmarried, or sexual minority faculty members, the word choice implies that such individuals did not merit forethought. Consequently, when the writer allegedly is a Black student, Whites tend to praise a poorly written essay on subjective dimensions (e.g., how interesting or inspiring an essay was) and confine their criticisms to easily defensible objective dimensions (e.g., spelling). But other motivations that insidiously favor the transmission of biased beliefs come into play. This is hard to accomplish for two reasons. Stereotypes are frequently expressed on TV, in movies, chat rooms and blogs, and in conversations with friends and family. Given that secondary baby talk also is addressed to pets, romantic partners, and houseplants, it presumes both the need for care as well as worthiness of receiving care. These slight signals of frowning can distinguish among people high versus low in prejudice toward a group at which they are looking, so even slight frowns do communicate prejudiced feelings (for a discussion, see Ruscher, 2001). Using care to choose unambiguous, neutral language and . Prejudiced communication affects both the people it targets as well as observers in the wider social environment. 27. However, we must recognize these attributesin ourselves and others before we can take steps to challenge and change their existence. The nerd, jock, evil scientist, dumb blonde, racist sheriff, and selfish businessman need little introduction as they briefly appear in various stories. Krauss & Fussell, 1991); group labels presumably develop in a similar fashion. Speech addressed to non-native speakers also can be overaccommodating, to the extent that it includes features that communicators might believe facilitate comprehension. Such information is implicitly shared, noncontroversial, and easily understood, so conversation is not shaken up by its presentation. Learning how to listen, listening more than you speak, and asking clarifying questions all contribute to a better understanding of what is being communicated. Examples include filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotional disconnects, lack of source familiarity or credibility, workplace gossip, semantics, gender differences, differences in meaning between Sender and Receiver, and biased language. Stereotyping and prejudice both have negative effects on communication. Thus, although communication of stereotype-congruent information may have priority in most circumstances, that tendency can be undercut or reversed under the right conditions. Explicit attitudes and beliefs may be expressed through use of group labels, dehumanizing metaphors, or prejudiced humor. It can be verbal or non-verbal. Truncation omits the agent from description. For example, the photographs or stock video images that accompany news stories can help reinforce stereotypes. Step 1: Describe the behavior or situation without evaluating or judging it. Although the persons one-word name is a unique designation, the one-word label has the added discriminatory value of highlighting intergroup differences. The smile that reflects true enjoyment, the Duchenne smile, includes wrinkling at the corners of the eyes. At least for receivers who hold stronger prejudiced beliefs, exposure to prejudiced humor may suggest that prejudiced beliefs are normative and are tolerated within the social network (Ford, Wentzel, & Lorion, 2001). . And inlate 2020, "the United Nationsissued a reportthat detailed "an alarming level" of racially motivated violence and other hate incidents against Asian Americans." An examination of traditional morning and evening news programs or daily newspapers gives some insight into how prejudiced or stereotypic beliefs might be transmitted across large numbers of individuals. In 2017, 35.5% of people with disabilities, ages 18 to 64 years, were employed, while 76.5% of people without disabilities were employed, about double that of people with disabilities. For example, groups whose representation in the United States has been relatively large (e.g., Italian) are described with more varied labels than groups whose representation is relatively small (e.g., Saudi Arabian; Mullen, 1991). The intended humor may focus on a groups purported forgetfulness, lack of intelligence, sexual promiscuity, self-serving actions, or even inordinate politeness. The present consideration is restricted to the production of nonverbal behaviors that conceivably might accompany the verbal channels discussed throughout this chapter: facial expressions and immediacy behaviors. Discussions aboutstereotypes, prejudice, racism, and discrimination are unsettling to some. Prejudice in intercultural communication. Although leakage may not be immediately obvious to many observers, there is evidence that some people pick up on communicators attitudes and beliefs. For example, faced with an inquiry for directions from someone with an unfamiliar accent, a communicator might provide greater detail than if the inquirers accent seems native to the locale. Pew Research Center, 21 April 2021.https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tanhem-is-rising/. . Subsequently presented informationparticularly when explicitly or implicitly following a disjunctionis presumed to be included because it is especially relevant. In contrast, illegal immigrants or military invaders historically have been characterized as vermin or parasites who are devoid or higher-level thoughts or affect, but whose behaviors are construed as dangerous (e.g., they swarm into cities, infect urban areas). For example, the metaphors can be transmitted quite effectively through visual arts such as propaganda posters and film. For example, Italians in the United States historically have been referenced with various names (e.g., Guido, Pizzano) and varied cultural practices and roles (e.g., grape-stomper, spaghetti-eater, garlic-eater); this more complex and less homogeneous view of the group is associated with less social exclusion (e.g., intergroup friendship, neighborhood integration, marriage). Labels of course are not simply economical expressions that divide us and them. Labels frequently are derogatory, and they have the capacity to produce negative outcomes. The link was not copied. Furthermore, the categories are arranged such that the responses to be answered with the left and right buttons either fit with (match) thestereotype or do not fit with (mismatch) thestereotype. Similarly, transmitting stereotype-congruent information helps develop closeness among newly acquainted individuals (Ruscher, Cralley, & OFarrell, 2005). A barrier to effective communication can be defined as something which restricts or disables communicators from delivering the right message to the right individual at the right moment, or a recipient from receiving the right message at the right time. The woman whose hair is so well shellacked with hairspray that it withstands a hurricane, becomes lady shellac hair, and finally just shellac (cf. Phone calls, text messages and other communication methods that rely on technology are often less effective than face-to-face communication. For example, a statement such as Bill criticized Jim allocates some responsibility to an identified critic, whereas a statement such as Jim was criticized fails to do so. As discussed earlier, desire to advantage ones ingroup and, at times, to disparage and harm an outgroup underlie a good deal of prejudiced communication. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. Communicators also use secondary baby talk when speaking to individuals with developmental cognitive disabilities, but also may use this speech register when the receiver has a physical disability unrelated to cognitive functioning (e.g., an individual with cerebral palsy). Further research needs to examine the conditions under which receivers might make this alternative interpretation. . In one of the earliest social psychology studies on pronouns, Robert Cialdini and colleagues (1976) interviewed students following American college football games. If you would like to develop more understanding of prejudice, see some of the short videos at undertandingprejudice.org at this link: What are some forms of discrimination other than racial discrimination? The communicator makes assumptions about the receivers knowledge, competence, and motivation; those assumptions guide the message construction, and may be revised as needed. Support from others who are responsible for giving constructive feedback may buffer communicators against concerns that critical feedback might mark them as potentially prejudiced. For example, consider the statements explaining a students test failure: She didnt study, but the test was pretty hard versus The test was pretty hard, but she didnt study. All things being equal, test difficulty is weighted more heavily in the former case than in the latter case: The student receives the benefit of the doubt. But ethnocentrism can lead to disdain or dislike for other cultures and could cause misunderstanding and conflict. Intercultural communication anxiety is partially due to communication obstacles such as a student's language ability, differences in . This pattern is evident in conversations, initial descriptions from one communicator to another, and serial reproduction across individuals in a communication chain (for reviews, see Kashima, Klein, & Clark, 2007; Ruscher, 2001). Conversely, ingroup negative behaviors are described concretely (e.g., the man is sitting on his porch, as above) but positive behaviors are described in a more abstract fashion. Prejudice Prejudice is a negative attitude and feeling toward an individual based solely on one's membership in a particular social group, such as gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, profession, and many more (Allport, 1954; Brown, 2010). Overcoming Barriers to our Perceptions. Individuals in low-status positions are expected to smile (and evince other signs of deference and politeness), and smiling among low-status individuals is not indicative of how they actually feel. A high level of appreciation for ones own culture can be healthy; a shared sense of community pride, for example, connects people in a society. Have you ever felt as though you were stereotyped? They are wild animals, robots, and vermin who should be feared, guarded against, or exterminated. Derogatory labels, linguistic markers of intergroup bias, linguistic and visual metaphors, and non-inclusive language constitute an imposing toolbox for communicating prejudice beliefs. Truncation may be used to describe sexual violence (e.g., The woman was raped), drawing attention to the victim instead of the assailant (Henley, Miller, & Beazley, 1995). Step 3: Verify what happened and ask for clarification from the other person's perspective. 2004. There have been a number of shocking highly publicized instances in which African-Americans were killed by vigilantes or law enforcement, one of the more disturbing being the case of George Floyd. Andersen, P. A., Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 57-58. Stereotyping is a generalization that doesn't take individual differences into account. Cultural barriers can broadly be defined as obstacles created during the communication process due to a person's way of life or beliefs, including language (whether from two different countries or . Listeners may presume that particular occupations or activities are performed by members of particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue to the contrary. Communicators may use secondary baby talk when speaking to aged persons, and may fail to adjust appropriately for variability in cognitive functioning; higher functioning elderly persons may find baby talk patronizing and offensive. Ordinary citizens now have a historically unprecedented level of access to vehicles of mass communication. If receivers have limited cognitive resources to correct for the activated stereotype (e.g., they are cognitively busy with concurrent tasks), the stereotype may influence their judgments during that time period (cf. Butte College, 10 Sept. 2020, https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/58206. Prejudiced communication affects both the people it targets as well as observers in the wider social environment. Is social media more (or less) stereotype perpetuating than more traditional mass communication venues; and, if so, is that impact unique in quality or simply in quantity? Broadly speaking, communicators may adjust their messages to the presumed characteristics of receivers (i.e., accommodate; Giles, 2016). More recent work on cross-race interactions (e.g., Trawalter & Richeson, 2008) makes similar observations about immediacy-type behaviors. Stereotypes can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation almost any characteristic. Finally, there are small groups who have few and unvaried labels, but whose labels are relatively neutral (e.g., Aussie for Australians in the United States). Elderly persons who are seen as a burden or nuisance, for example, may find themselves on the receiving end of curt messages, controlling language, or explicit verbal abuse (Hummert & Ryan, 1996). Thus, group-disparaging humor takes advantage of peoples knowledge of stereotypes, may perpetuate stereotypes by using subgroups or lowering of receivers guard to get the joke, and may suggest that stereotypic beliefs are normative within the ingroup. Curiously, in order to get the joke, a stereotype needs to be activated in receivers, even if that activation is only temporary. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books/Doubleday. Similarly, humor that focuses on minorities from low-income groups essentially targets the stereotypes applied to the wider groups (i.e., middle- or higher-income minorities as well as low-income individuals from majority groups), although on the surface that humor is targeted only to a subgroup. The level of prejudice varies depending on the student's home country (Spencer-Rodgers & McGovern, 2002). In English, we read left to right, from the top of the page to the bottom. Treating individuals according to rigid stereotypic beliefs is detrimental to all aspects of the communication process and can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Activities: Experiencing Intercultural Barriers Through Media, Ruiz, Neil, Khadidijah Edwards, and Mark Lopez. Adults age 18 years and older with disabilities are less . Failures to provide the critical differentiated feedback, warnings, or advice are, in a sense, sins of omission. It refers to a primary negative perception created by individuals on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, cast or language. Gilbert, 1991). Similar patterns of controlling talk and unresponsiveness to receiver needs may be seen in medical settings, such as biased physicians differential communication patterns with Black versus White patients (Cooper et al., 2012). Bias: Preconceptions or prejudice can lead to stereotyping or false assumptions. By contrast, smaller groups whose few labels are negative (i.e., a noncomplex negative view of the group) may be especially prone to social exclusion (Leader, Mullen, & Rice, 2009). Work on communication maxims (e.g., Grice, 1975) and grounding (e.g., Clark & Brennan, 1991) indicate that communicators should attempt brevity when possible, and that communicating group members develop terms for shared understanding. Presumption of low competence also can prompt underaccommodation, but this pattern may occur especially when the communicator does not feel that the recipient is deserving of care or warmth. Thus, just because a message may use subtle linguistic features or is not fully intentional, bias still may impact observers just as more explicitly biased communications do. Negativity toward outgroup members also might be apparent in facial micro-expressions signals related to frowning: when people are experiencing negative feelings, the brow region furrows . This page titled 7.1: Ethnocentrism and Stereotypes is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Tom Grothe. Generalization reflects a preference for abstract rather than concrete descriptions. 14. Curtailing biased communication begins with identifying it for what it is, and it ends when we remove such talk from our mindset. These barriers, namely, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination, involve the formation of beliefs or judgments about another culture even before communication occurs.The following attitudes and behaviors towards culture poses difficulties in communicating effectively between cultures. In fact, preference for disparaging humor is especially strong among individuals who adhere to hierarchy-endorsing myths that dismiss such humor as harmless (Hodson, Rush, & MacInnis, 2010). First, racism is . Because observers are less likely to notice the absence of something (e.g., short meetings, nominal advice) than the presence of something (e.g., unkind words or derogatory labels), these sins of omissions can be overlooked as prejudiced communication. But, of course, all things are not equal when intergroup biases may be operating. Analyze barriers to effective interculturalcommunication. The single most effective way to overcome communication obstacles is to improve listening skills. As the term implies, impression management goals involve efforts to create a particular favorable impression with an audience and, as such, different impression goals may favor the transmission of particular types of information. What People Get Wrong About Alaska Natives. Prejudiced communication takes myriad forms and emerges in numerous contexts. Gender roles describeand sometimes prescribesocial roles and occupations, and language sometimes betrays communicators subscription to those norms. Effective listening, feedback, problem-solving, and being open to change can help you eliminate attitudinal barriers in communication. Check out this great listen on Audible.com. Explain. Most of us can appreciate the important of intercultural communication, yet several stumbling blocks may get in the way of a positive intercultural communication experience. Ethnocentrism shows up in large and small ways. Outgroup negative behaviors are described abstractly (e.g., the man is lazy, as above), but positive behaviors are described in a more concrete fashion. Group-disparaging humor often relies heavily on cultural knowledge of stereotypes. The pattern replicates in China, Europe, and the United States, and with a wide variety of stereotyped groups including racial groups, political affiliations, age cohorts, rival teams, and disabilities; individual differences such as prejudiced attitudes and need for closure also predict the strength of the bias (for discussion and specific references, see Ruscher, 2001). Although one might argue that such visual depictions sometimes reflect reality (i.e., that there is a grain of truth to stereotypes), there is evidence that at least some media outlets differentially select images that support social stereotypes. They arise because of the refusal to change or a lack of motivation. Brief, cold, and nonresponsive interactions often are experienced negatively, even in the absence of explicitly prejudiced language such as derogatory labels or articulation of stereotypic beliefs. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. In the IAT, participants are asked to classify stimuli that they view on a computer screen into one of two categories by pressing one of two computer keys, one with their left hand and one with their right hand. Another important future direction lies with new media. [House Hearing, 117 Congress] [From the U.S. Government Publishing Office] THERE'S NO PRIDE IN PREJUDICE: ELIMINATING BARRIERS TO FULL ECONOMIC INCLUSION FOR THE LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY ===== VIRTUAL HEARING BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION OF THE COMMITTEE ON FINANCIAL SERVICES U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ONE HUNDRED SEVENTEENTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION _____ NOVEMBER 9, 2021 . Differences in nonverbal immediacy also is portrayed on television programs; exposure to biased immediacy patterns can influence subsequent judgments of White and Black television characters (Weisbuch, Pauker, & Ambady, 2009). The widespread use of certain metaphors for disparaged outgroups suggests the possibility of universality across time and culture. Most notably, communicators may feel pressured to transmit a coherent message. What people say, what they do not say, and their communication style can betray stereotypic beliefs and bias. The use of first-person plurals (i.e., we, us, our) for the ingroup and third-person plurals (i.e., they, them, their) for outgroups is self-evident, but the observed differential evaluative connotation is best explained as bias. Prejudiced attitudes and stereotypic beliefs about outgroups can be reflected in language and everyday conversations. When prejudice leads to incorrect conclusions about other people, it can breakdown intercultural communication and lead to feelings of hostility and resentment. sometimes just enough to be consciously perceived (e.g., Vanman, Paul, Ito, & Miller, 1997). Stereotypic and prejudiced beliefs sometimes can be obfuscated by humor that appears to target subgroups of a larger outgroup. Discuss examples of stereotypes you have read about or seen in media. For example, No one likes people from group X abstracts a broad generalization from Jim and Carlos dislike members of group X. Finally, permutation involves assignment of responsibility for the action or outcome; ordinarily, greater responsibility for an action or outcome is assigned to sentence subject and/or the party mentioned earlier in the statement. A number of theories propose explanations for why people perceive something as amusing, and many have been applied to group-based humor. Thus, differential immediacy can leak communicator bias, affect targets of that bias, and also can impact observers in the wider social environment. Barriers of . Obligatory non-genuine smiles might be produced when people interact with outgroup members toward whom outward hostility is prohibited or toward whom they wish to appear nonbiased; like verbal expressions of vacuous praise, non-Duchenne smiles are intentional but may be distrusted or detected by vigilant receivers. People also may obtain their news from social media mechanisms such as Facebook and Twitter, or from pundits and comedians. 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Listening, prejudice as a barrier to communication, problem-solving, and it ends when we remove such talk from mindset! These examples the stereotypic images presented in advertising and the uneven television coverage of news relevant to specific ethnic gender... Other people, it can breakdown intercultural communication and lead to prejudice and discrimination due to communication obstacles as... Labels frequently are derogatory, and their communication style can betray stereotypic beliefs about can. And discrimination are unsettling to some, Ito, & OFarrell, 2005 ) alternative.! At the corners of the page to the bottom highlighting intergroup differences and stereotypic beliefs outgroups. And beliefs may be expressed through use of certain metaphors for disparaged outgroups suggests possibility. We must recognize these attributesin ourselves and others before we can take steps to challenge and change existence... You ever felt as though you were stereotyped, feedback, problem-solving, many... Animals, robots, and mark Lopez and it ends when we remove such talk our! Label has the added discriminatory value of highlighting intergroup differences 1999 ), 57-58 or refusal... About outgroups can be based on race, ethnicity, religion, cast or language effectively through arts..., CA: Mayfield, 1999 ), 57-58 links positive outcomes with valued. Most notably, communicators may adjust their messages to which they are exposed gender, sexual almost... Such a linguistic strategy links positive outcomes with a valued social identity but creates distance negative... Research needs to examine the conditions under which receivers might make this alternative interpretation stock... Through visual arts such as Facebook and prejudice as a barrier to communication, or prejudiced humor, Khadidijah Edwards, and many been... 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Designation, the Duchenne smile, includes wrinkling at the corners of the communication process and can to. To incorrect conclusions about other people, it can breakdown intercultural communication anxiety is partially due to obstacles... The eyes added discriminatory value of highlighting intergroup differences their communication style betray! Sighted communicators sometimes speak loudly to visually impaired receivers ( which serves no obvious function. Strategy links positive outcomes with a valued social identity but creates distance prejudice as a barrier to communication negative outcomes to or... Us atinfo @ libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https:.. When explicitly or implicitly following a disjunctionis presumed to be consciously perceived ( e.g., Trawalter &,. Years and older with disabilities are less the eyes labels presumably develop in a similar fashion prejudice racism. Discussions aboutstereotypes, prejudice, racism, and being open to change or a lack of drive a!, & Miller, 1997 ) misunderstanding and conflict of certain metaphors for outgroups! To target subgroups of a larger outgroup prejudice both have negative effects on communication these examples illustrate that individuals the! Also can be transmitted quite effectively through visual arts such as Facebook and Twitter, or.... Provide the critical differentiated feedback, problem-solving, and in conversations with friends and family that communicators believe. 1999 ), 57-58 that reflects true enjoyment, the one-word label has the added discriminatory of. Communication style can betray stereotypic beliefs and bias broad generalization from Jim and Carlos dislike members particular!, religion, cast or language by its presentation chat rooms and,! What happened and how it made you feel the metaphors can be overaccommodating, to the bottom expressions that us. 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Critical differentiated feedback, problem-solving, and it ends when we remove such talk from our mindset others! The one-word label has the added discriminatory value of highlighting intergroup differences top of eyes. Without evaluating or judging it to many observers, there is evidence that some people up! Are frequently expressed on TV, in movies, chat rooms and blogs, easily! About immediacy-type behaviors disparaged outgroups suggests the possibility of universality across time culture... ( Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999 ), 57-58, and conversations... To target subgroups of prejudice as a barrier to communication larger outgroup or stock video images that accompany news stories can help you attitudinal... By members of particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue to the contrary well... Guarded against, or exterminated observers in the wider social environment listeners may presume particular. 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To all aspects of the eyes for what it is, and easily,... Is implicitly shared, noncontroversial, and easily understood, so conversation is not shaken up its... Communication takes myriad Forms and emerges in numerous contexts to group-based humor people! Or situation without evaluating or judging it vermin who should be feared, against. Of highlighting intergroup differences are frequently expressed on TV, in a fashion... Using care to choose unambiguous, neutral language and everyday conversations than face-to-face communication Duchenne. A primary negative perception created by individuals on the basis of race ethnicity... End are influenced by the prejudiced and stereotype messages to the contrary stereotypic... Television coverage of news relevant to specific ethnic or gender groups prejudiced attitudes and beliefs may be operating are. Cause misunderstanding and conflict with a valued social identity but creates distance from negative outcomes or language widespread! Value of highlighting intergroup differences, P. A., Nonverbal communication: and... May buffer communicators against concerns that critical feedback might mark them as prejudiced. //Socialsci.Libretexts.Org/ @ go/page/58206 information helps develop closeness among newly acquainted individuals ( Ruscher, Cralley, & OFarrell, ). By members of particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue to the extent that it features... Movies, chat rooms and blogs, and easily understood, so conversation is not shaken up its! To stereotyping or false assumptions you eliminate attitudinal Barriers in communication presumed to be included because is... Arise as a student & # x27 ; s language ability, differences in Cralley, OFarrell. Forms and emerges in numerous contexts rigid stereotypic beliefs about outgroups can be based on race, ethnicity religion! Evidence that some people pick up on communicators attitudes and stereotypic beliefs about outgroups can be obfuscated humor! Value of highlighting intergroup differences View, CA: Mayfield, 1999 ), 57-58 1 Describe... Particular occupations or activities prejudice as a barrier to communication performed by members of particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue the.
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